Computer Crime Essay Essay Example for Free

Computer Crime Essay Essay Computer crime is an ongoing issue that we continuously see, and a major problem with this is that most people do not realize the harm that computer crime can cause. Computer crime is also a niche that continues to grow. This is based on the fact that there are many different perceptions about what computer crime is, and the harmful effects it can have. Because there is a gap between traditional views of what cyber crime is and the actual realities of these crimes, it is a criminal offense that will continue to happen. A major issue within this industry is the fact that citizens, law enforcement officials, prosecutors, and the government don’t put cyber crime at the top of their list of dangerous crimes is because the actual act of computer crime is not in itself viewed as being dangerous. This is a traditional view of computer crime, and the book goes on to explain that, â€Å"many [stereotypical] computer criminals are non-threatening, socially challenged individuals, and 36.3% of officers believe that investigation of computer crime interferes with their ability to concentrate on ‘traditional’ crimes† (Britz, 7). Because police tend to not look too seriously at these crimes, the general public will form their own, similar opinions on the matter. This gives people an inaccurate belief about the effects of cyber crime. In fact, computer crime can and many times is violent today. One area of computer crime that has become particularly dangerous, especially for younger generations is cyber bullying. In recent years, we have seen more and more suicides related to cyber bullying then ever before. An example of this can be seen in the case of the United States v. Lori Drew. Lori was an older woman who pretended to be a teenaged boy and began to talk and soon after started an online relationship with a 14-year-old girl. The girl eventually began to fall for the fake 16-year-old boy that Lori Drew created. After a series of conversations, their â€Å"relationship† ended with a message from Drew telling the girl that nobody actually liked her and she should instead kill herself. Unfortunately, the 14-year-old girl, being highly impressionable and because of her feelings for this fake teenage boy, took the advice and ended up killing herself. A big issue we have seen with lawmakers imposing laws to prevent cyber crime is that, it is  such an advanced form of crime that many times it is unclear if there was an actual crime committed and if so where/when it happened. In past situations, â€Å"legislative bodies and judicial authorities have been slow to respond† (Britz, 5). This slow response allows for those committing crimes in cyber space to avoid punishment and lets these criminals continue their illegal operations. Another problem within this criminal sector is the gray area between, â€Å"someone who accesses information without authorization and someone who is actually committing an act in cyberspace meant to harm someone or destroy property† (Webster). Another traditional view when it comes to cyber crime that is probably the most commonly thought, is that â€Å"it would never happen to me†. The average American does not think that they could be a computer criminal’s targets. These people believe that because they aren’t millionaires and instead an average income American, cyber criminals won’t go after them. This unfortunately is not the case, and because these people aren’t taking the proper steps to protect themselves, they are becoming easier to target. In 2004, 54 million Americans were subject to email attacks by â€Å"phishers† looking to steal financial information from people. Roughly 4% of these 54 million people gave away their financials including credit card numbers, addresses, phone numbers, etc—that is almost 1.7 million people! In the year 2003, 1.2 billion dollars were generated in cyber attacks on average Americans. But computer criminals are not just using this phishing approach to steal information and money. They are practicing using key logging and spyware to steal passwords and other private information that can allow these people to go unnoticed while spending your money. Despite the fact that we see more and more security be put in place to avoid these issues, it continues to happen because so many people in our society believe it will not happen to them. But what is instead happening, is more of these average people are being targeted because they are essentially making it easier for these criminals to steal their personal information. While these criminals certainly could steal more money from millionaires, going after these more average Americans is easier and safer (Wilson). With how technology dependent our society has become, we see more and more  hacking crimes today. There even exist groups out there that have members from all over the world that collectively hack different websites. For example, Anonymous is probably the most well known hacking collective in the world. Parmy Olson’s book We Are Anonymous: Inside the Hacker World, she discusses the history of the group and the attacks that they have done. This group would like us to believe that they are an activist group that seeks freedom for all people, but has hacked financial institutions such as PayPal, MasterCard and Visa. They want us to believe that they are freedom fighters and simply believe in an unregulated Internet, but they tend to go after websites and companies that simply disagree with their message. It is kind of a double-edged sword, because while they are preaching about freedom of speech, they then in turn go after people who disagree with their message. Olson even discusses the fact that the group went after her because of the books she was writing about this organization. People are definitely becoming more aware of the dangers of computer crime, many Americans still do not see the detrimental effects that cyber crime can have on society. These people that are blinded by traditional views of computer crime, have become the target of attacks. Their lack of preparations have allowed cyber criminals to go after them and gain money through their computer skills. Works Cited Britz, M. T. (2013). Computer Forensics and Cyber Crime and Introduction (3rd ed., Vol. 3). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Olson, Parmy. We Are Anonymous: Inside the Hacker World of LulzSec, Anonymous, and the Global Cyber Insurgency. New York: Little, Brown and Company, . United States v. Lori Drew. (Feb. 2008): California . 2 Jul. 2012. news.findlaw.com/wp/docs/cyberlaw/usdrew51508ind.pdf. Webster, S. C. (2013, June 20). Lawmakers Propose Cyber Crime Reforms. Retrieved from Raw Story website: http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2013/06/20/lawmakers-propose-cyber-crime-reforms-inspired-by-aaron-swartz/ Wilson, T. (n.d.). How Phishing Works. Retrieved June 30, 2013, from How Stuff Works website: http://www.howstuffworks.com/phishing.htm

Activities Of Ancient Hawaiian Culture Cultural Studies Essay

Activities Of Ancient Hawaiian Culture Cultural Studies Essay The ancient Hawaiians had many games and physical activities that were important to their religious beliefs and everyday life. Although many of the activities were culturally important, two activities exceedingly survived to be recognized on a global scale: surfing and hula. The uniqueness of these two activities has made them iconic of Hawaiian culture and has created a strong sense of pride and renewed sense of culture. The goal of my research is to give a history of the popular Hawaiian physical activities of surfing and hula and their significance to Hawaiian culture. The significance of such activities in relation to culture is an important subject in anthropology and the use of primary and secondary sources will be my field of study in this paper. The research will begin with the history of the Makahiki or Hawaiian New Year and its importance to games and physical activities as a religious and cultural event. The study will incorporate the two popular ancient Hawaiian activitie s, including a brief history of their relationship to the ancient Hawaiian culture and the importance of these activities to Hawaiians today. It is important to note the effect that globalization has had on these activities and how their values and meanings have shifted. Hula and surfing are important today in relation to tourism, which is the leading industry in Hawaii. Due to globalization and the power of the capitalist market economy the importance of surfing as a practice of Hawaiian culture has shifted to become a vehicle of tourism and recreation. Furthermore; Hula had been of the most important ancient Hawaiian cultural institutions and has subsequently shifted to become a vehicle of tourism and recreation. Although the effects of globalization have shifted the cultural importance of these activities, the communal existence of Polynesian people will be the force that sustains surfing and hulas cultural importance. Makahiki The Hawaiian New Year festival is called Makahiki and was a very important time of the year in ancient Hawaiian civilization. The word Makahiki translates as year in Hawaiian. The celebration marks the end of the harvest and the beginning of the new agricultural growing season. The celebration was in honor of the god Lono, and encompassed about four months from November to March. The celebration was separated into three phases: the first being hookupu, a time of taxes to the king and redistribution to the people. The second phase was welehu and was devoted to sports and gambling (Jones 1967). The creation of the second phase and the mythology behind it shows how sports and games were not only important to people as means of leisure activities but also how they were important in their relation to culture and religious beliefs. Lo-no was the fourth of the four great gods that were worshiped throughout Polynesia. He had a separate order of priests and temples of a lower grade. Traditions connected with the ancient kings Lonokawai and Lono-i-ka-makahiki, seem to have been mixed with those belonging to the primeval god Lo-no. Lono-i-ka-makahiki is reputed to have instituted the games which were celebrated during the Ma-hahi-Ri festival. He is said on some account to have become offended with his wife and murdered her; but afterward lamented the act so much as to induce a state of mental derangement. In this state he traveled through all the islands, boxing and wrestling with everyone he met. He subsequently set sail, in a singularly shaped canoe, for Tahiti, or a foreign country. After his departure he was deified by his countrymen, and annual contests of boxing and wrestling were instituted in his honor. (Cullin 1899: 203) The third phase of the ceremony was waaauhau and was a time to pay taxes to the gods. A canoe was sent adrift with a tribute to Lono and after this tribute was paid the king would also go adrift. The final act of the ceremony, according to Cullen, took place when the king with a numerous company went fishing, taking the long idol with him. On his return, he was accompanied by a warrior, expert in the spear exercise. As the king leaped ashore a man rushed forward with two spears bound with white kapa, and hurled one at him, which was parried, after which he simply touched the king with the other spear, and the ceremony was over (1899: 204). The final act was the sham battle, in which the king overcame the islanders defense of the landing which symbolized his worth and permitted him to continue to rule. Seaton assumes that, the intensity of the defense was proportional to the general dissatisfaction, for failure to land was regarded by the Hawaiians as a demonstration that the ruling c hief had lost his mana and therefore, the right to rule (1974: 201). Overall, the Makahiki is described as a period of renewal, an interval during which the divine order of the king was upturned and the regimens of socia1 rank and work were suspended. It was carnival, warfare was suspended, sociability and play were the principal activities. (Davenport 1987: 177). The ancient Hawaiians would anticipate this celebration and the entire year was in preparation for it. Therefore, it is reasonable to speculate that practice of games and physical activities were common throughout the year and common in the daily life of ancient Hawaiians with particular importance being placed on the practice of surfing and hula because of their relation to the economy and religion of ancient Hawaii. Surfing Hee Nalu (surfing) originated in ancient Hawaii and was important in ancient culture because of its relationship to economy and religion. Surfing was a very popular sport, so popular in fact that it is the only sport of Hawaiian origin to flourish at an international level today. The history of the sport is very hard to discern because of diffusion and the fact that all ancient Polynesians had a mastery of oceanic skills, although most scholars agree that it was in Hawaii that this activity flourished. The Surfers Almanac discusses the evolution of surfing by means of diffusion by settlers of Hawaii from other parts of Polynesia: The Marquesans brought to their new Hawaiian home their ancient sport of paipo-riding a wave on a small, rounded board while lying prone, the sport today called belly boarding or knee boarding. The Tahitians also brought their favorite aquatic pastime to Hawaii. They rode the incoming waves while standing in a waa (canoe), an activity they called paka. When did it happen that a young Marquesan using a paipo board to surf prone, watched a newcomer from Tahiti surfing erect in his canoe and decided to stand upon his paipo, discovering that if he had enough speed he could do so? That moment was the birthdate of surfboarding. (Filosa 1977: 2). Like many aspects of ancient Polynesian culture, surfing was stratified based on social rank. Filosa explains, the Hawaiian nobility, the alii, used the great olo (heavy) board. The makaainana, the commoners, used the alaia (thin) board. The nobles liked slow, undulating waves such as those found at the mother beach of surfing, Waikiki; the commoners preferred fast-breaking steep waves such as those at Waimea Bay (Filosa 1977: 3). Surfing reached its pinnacle in ancient life with King Kamehameaha II who abolished the tabus on surfing. All people from that point on could surf however they pleased. Surfing became a national sport and very important to the society. Like many Hawaiian activities the ancients would create competitions based on skill and mastery of the craft. The relation of surfing to ancient Hawaiian culture was based on these competitions which in turn had an effect on the economy. In terms of the gambling side of the sport, Malo and states that: Surf riding was a natio nal sport of the Hawaiians, on which they were very fond of betting, each man staking his property on the one he thought to most skillful (1951: 223). It was because of gambling and the arrival of Congregationalist missionaries from Boston that the activity nearly became extinct. The religious taboos on gambling and the confiscation of land by the missionaries caused a dramatic drop in the population and in effect so did the sport of surfing, Filosa describes the decline and reason for its revival: With the death of so many Hawaiians, the sport of surfing slowly declined, until in 1898 when the islands were annexed to the United States, less than fifty Hawaiians still surfed, and these used the great olo boards. By 1900, there were fewer than ten surfers, but among them was a boy born in 1890 of royal blood. He was destined to salvage the national sport of his people and become the father of modern surfing. His name was Duke Paoa Kahinu Makoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku, son of Duke Halapu Kahanamoku and Julia Paakonia Lonokahikini Paoa. He is still revered by surfers worldwide simply as the Duke.' (Filosa1977: 4) Surfing as a physical activity had its foundation in Hawaiian religion and culture. It was Kamehameha the Great who made surfing the national sport of Hawaii. Kamehameha II, his son, who abolished the tabu system so that all Hawaiians could participate in the sport. Last but not least, Duke Kahanamoku kept the sport alive and transported it around the world. The diffusion of ancient surfing and modern surfing has undoubtedly created opportunity and pride due to the ever growing popularity of this cultural pastime which has become a powerful global industry. Hula Whereas surfing gained its popularity today because of its function as a sport, hula is much more than just a physical activity done for enjoyment. The hula can be viewed as a distinctive and integral facet of the Hawaiian culture (Williams 1973: 177). Hula is translated as to dance and make sport to the accompaniment of music and song. Unlike surfing and other sports and activities hula was something that was taken very seriously and practiced in everyday life. Mitchell (1975) states that the strict and rigorous training for the professional male and female dancers extended over a period of years. (pg 85). Although the hula may have been practiced in everyday life, the ancient Hawaiians did not use it for their own amusement as it is done today. The hula had great religious importance and dances were performed for kings, chiefs, or the public during important ceremonies like the makahiki. The dancers were specially chosen and were held in high regard throughout Polynesia. These danc ers required special education and arduous training in traditions, songs, and dance. Those persons who were chosen to become dancers were specifically chosen because of hulas relationship to religion. Emerson explains that it (hula) was a religious affair and the participants therefore had to guard against profanation by a conservative system of tapus and priestly rites(1965: 13). The dancers were initiated into a school which was more of a cultural institution called a halau. The halau functioned according to a very strict set of regulations and rules. In ancient Hawaii the strict tapus and importance of the hula required the halau to be a built by the entire surrounding population and the united effort regularly made it possible for a halau to be built in one day. Williams (1977) demonstrates the importance of the hula to ancient Hawaiians when she states: The hula not only was an embodiment of the beliefs and values of the people but also served as the keeper of tradition and as a vehicle of communication for passing on religion, history, and legends. The hula functioned as a cultural transmitter because it embodied, within the dance movements and the dance songs and chants, knowledge and productive skills, social sanctions, genealogies, personal and community experiences and the imagery arising from mans relation to nature. (pg 177) Like ancient forms of surfing, the dances and the games were largely discontinued after the introduction of foreign ways into Hawaii. Fortunately during the mid 19th century, King Kalakaua sponsored a revival of the hula while there were experts still living in the kingdom. Due to tourism and to a greater extent globalization hula as a symbol of Hawaiian culture but is not nearly as important as it once was. It is a uniquely Hawaiian activity but it is seen primarily as a physical activity and not as an important cultural institution. In Hawaiian Hula: an Institution, Williams (1973) writes: The hula, once a proud, vital institution of religious origin, has wandered so far that now the memory of it is either totally forgotten or is associated with the riotous and passionate ebullitions of Polynesian kings and the amorous posturing of their voluptuaries. A distinction must be made between the traditional forms and the gestures, bodily contortions, and words uttered by men and women actors of the hula today. Many actors in the hula no longer understand the meanings of the words, or suit the action to the word. The hula songs of old were performed in large measure in a way untainted with grossness'(1973: 182). Although some may view hula in this context, elucidating the differences between modern and ancient hula, the fact that it has such deep rooted uniqueness and cultural symbolism is important to Hawaiians and Polynesians in general. Conclusion Of the many physical activities and games that ancient Hawaiians had, very few survived to be important to Hawaiians today. Surfing and hula are two Hawaiian pastimes that have survived and their history is testament to their importance in Hawaiian culture. Surfing, initially a leisure activity that was practiced daily and used in religious ceremonies such as makahiki has become a very large international industry. Due to globalization this industry has proven to be very important to Hawaiian culture because of its relation to tourism. Surfing and surfing events such as the triple crown attract millions of persons each year to the islands. Tourism is the leading industry in Hawaii and like many other island communities tourism and surfing are creating new frontiers and opportunies. Hula, although not as popular globally as surfing, has remained a vital part of Hawaiian culture. This institution was of the utmost importance to the ancient Hawaiians daily existence and functioned as a tool to aid their religious beliefs (Williams 1973:177). In fact, hula was so important that it is said that every activity of the ancient Hawaiians had its own hula, from waking in the morning to carving a canoe. Due to globalization the importance of the Hawaiian hula has shifted from a religious and cultural activity to an activity that has its roots in Hawaiian culture but is used primarily for tourist spectacles and physical exercise. Although globalization has shifted the importance of these activities, the Hawaiian culture in its ancient and present forms and the close communal and co-operative type of existence of the people (Jones 1967:204) have shown to be the reason for the creation of these activities and that alone sustains their cultural importance.

What To Do About Ethnic Cleans Essay -- essays research papers

WHAT TO DO ABOUT ETHNIC CLEANSING? BACKGROUND PAPER   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1994, unrest swept through the Maryland-sized African nation of Rwanda. Thousands of Hutu extremists launched a massive assault on the Tutsi, who traditionally make up Rwanda's upper class, killing hundreds of thousands of innocent people (Night Rider – 'most days';). The United States immediately responded to this slaughter by turning the other way, denying that a problem existed until years after the genocide had ceased. In 1999, ethnic cleansing (hostility between ethnic groups) broke out in Kosovo in a less severe form. This time, instead of being killed, the Kosovars were driven out of their homes and neighborhoods. This time, United States and NATO forces immediately confronted the problem by launching a substantial air war on the area. Clearly, the doctrine for ethnic cleansing is widely varied, and merits further discussion.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ethnic cleansing is a 'phrase for an attempt to purge an area of an unwanted ethnic group. It can include deportation, intimidation, and acts of genocide or mass murder.'; (Encarta, 'Ethnic cleansing';). It occurs most frequently in third world countries. Whenever it arises, it is followed by a host of moral questions. Do we just stay out completely and allow the country to deal with its own problems? Or, if we decide to take action, do we merely send medical aid or help militarily? Should we send in the army? Or is an air war the only acceptable option? It all comes down to an ethical issue, with one group insisting that preventing the loss of lives is paramount. The other side states that ethnic cleansing is caused by a fundamental disagreement between two ethnic groups, so unless we allow the groups to resolve their own issues, they can never be content and productive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Whenever any human rights issue breaks out, there are differing opinions on the appropriate course of action. The difference in the case of ethnic cleansing is that this issue is much more critical than almost any other human rights issue. In the case of ethnic cleansing, the United States' approach to intervention could determine the fates of thousands of people. In cases of extreme ethnic cleansing, intervention can take place on an international level, with many nations cooperating in an attempt to br... ... not affect its neighbors adversely. This middle ground supports certain parts of both sides. It believes that while the country should be allowed to conduct its own internal affairs as it sees fit, as soon as the conflict oversteps the nation's borders, we must intervene to prevent the trouble from spreading as it did during the holocaust.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the present moment, the pro-action side is most influential in determining strategies for dealing with ethnic cleansing. This is illustrated by the Kosovo conflict. Only a few years previously, the anti-action approach was in favor; no outside intervention occurred during the Rwandan genocide. No predictions forecast an end to the issues of ethnic cleansing. As long as distinction can be made between groups, that distinction will be made, and as long as that distinction is made, there will be a few warmongers who will take advantage and cause bloodshed. Although the madness of a few people will not always spread, once in a while it will go out of control, leading to a massive genocide such as in Germany and Rwanda. And when there is another massive wholesale destruction, what will the world powers do about it?

Czech Republic :: Czech Europe Essays

Czech Republic We just arrived in the Czech Republic; once part of the Holy Roman Empire and then the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Czechoslovakia (as it was then known) became an independent nation at the end of World War I. The Czech republic is located North of Hungary, South of Poland, East of Germany, and West of the Ukraine and Russia. The capital of the Czech republic is Prague. The Czech Republicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s exact position is - longitude, - latitude. Pragueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s coordinates are longitude by latitude. We arrived in the Czech Republic on and left for on . While in the Czech Republic we visited many unique sights. One of the most impressive was Prague Castle. It is the most popular and most visited sight in the Czech Republic, so it was a must see attraction for us. We also went to The Castle St. Vitus, the Cathedral, (which is a gothic landmark), three courtyards, and many huge & beautiful gardens. We visited another church, St. Nicholas, it had a large green cupola. We wanted to get a feel for the people of the country, so we went to Old Town. Old Town is the working heart of Prague, as it has been since the 10th Century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many of the buildings we went in had gothic insides and Roman basements. One day we had a picnic on a three hundred and eighteen-meter high hill called Petrin Hill. On top there is actually a network of eight parks. While we were there we stopped at the observatory Petrin Tower. Petrin Tower looks like a small Eiffel Tower and was built in 1891. We climbed the 299 steps for only 25 kc, (which is Czech money). Next we went to Wencelas Square. This square is the center of cultural, financial and everyday life. There are a lot of theaters, shops, store and banks around to use. After our adventure in the square we went to see Josefov, the Old Jewish Quarters. Praguesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ former Jewish ghetto was located in Old Town within the streets of Kaprova, Plouha and Ankozi. During World War II the Nazisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ under the control of Hitler wiped out this community.

Child Soldiers

Child soldiers a) The nature of the human rights issue A child soldier is a person under the age of 18 who participates, directly or indirectly, in armed conflicts as part of an armed force or group, in either armed and supporting roles. The use of children in armed conflict is considered to be a form of slavery or human trafficking. Although children join armed groups ‘voluntarily’ it often involves coercion, force or deception, or the child may see no other option for survival but to join. The UN and human rights watch estimated that the number of children serving in armed conflicts at between 200 000- 300 000.The UN reported 57 armed groups’ worldwide using child soldiers. b) Where the human rights issue occurs. Worldwide conflicts that have involved child soldiers include: * Srilanka * Uganda * Colombia * Myanmar * Iraq * Israel * Palestinian territories * Sudan In Uganda more than 30 000 children have been kidnapped to serve as soldiers and slaves my lordâ₠¬â„¢s resistance army (LRA); the boys are forced to loot and burn villages and to torture and kill neighbours; girls are raped or become sex slaves. c) The legal and non legal responses to child soldiers both include international and domestic responses.Legal responses: International responses include the Geneva conventions, ‘laws of war’. Which is a series of 4 treaties adopted between 1864 and 1949 to regulate the conduct of armed conflict and attempt to limit its affects. these 4 treaties include; the first Geneva convention (1864) which protects wounded and sick soldiers on land during war, the second Geneva convention (1906) which protects wounded, sick and ship wrecked military personnel at sea during war, the third Geneva convention (1929) which applies to prisoners of ar and the fourth Geneva convention (1949) which affords protection to civilians, including occupied territory. Also, additional protocols to the Geneva conventions includes; the problem of child s oldiers being recognised and the minimum age for recruitment or use in armed conflict was set at 15 years for government and non-government parties.In addition to these conventions include the convention on the rights of the child (1989), the Rome statute of the international criminal court (2002), the worst forms of child labour convention (1999) and the UN Security Council (2004-2005). An example of these legal responses in action is the Thomas lubanga dyilo case where he was accused of conscripting child soldiers to fight in armed conflict in the DRC during 2002 and 2002.Domestic responses although limited by state sovereignty include the child soldiers accountability act which allowed the US to prosecute individuals domestically who have knowingly recruited or served as child soldiers in or outside the country. Other responses include the amendment of the criminal code act 1995 (cth) where two sections were added to the criminal code to criminalise the use, conscription or enlis tment of children as a part of an international or national armed conflict. Non legal responses: International responses include; the United Nations which monitors the use of child soldiers worldwide – the international labour organisation and unicef which play a role in research and studies into the status of the problem, providing recommendations to the UN and to member states and promoting the obligations of the treaties on children in armed conflict – and the coalition to stop the use of child soldiers which compromises many different member organisations with a common purpose of preventing the recruitment and use of children as soldiers, securing the demobilisation of child soldiers and their reintegration into society.Domestic responses include domestic NGOs, Groups or individuals and the media. Domestic NGOs focus on issues relating to child soldiers, particularly in countries where recruitment of child soldiers is a significant problem. For example red hand day . Groups and individuals assist in the rehabilitation of former child soldiers, by helping to relocate their families, get back into school, provide vocational training and re enter life. The media informs the public about the existence and problems of child soldiers for example the movie blood diamond focussed on the recruitment and use of child soldiers in diamond related conflict areas. Child Soldiers critical Analysis of the use of Child Soldiers in Liberia 5. 1 Introduction Generally stated ,this paper seeks to establish the role of child soldiers in the escalation of armed conflict in Africa. The previous chapters have discussed the regional armed conflicts where child soldiers were used or are being used like the case of DRC Congo. This chapter will critically analyse the use of child soldiers in Liberia. There were approximately 120,000 child soldiers who were participating in armed conflicts in Africa. Out of these, approximately 24,000 were in the Liberian conflict.Liberia is not a poor country. It has natural resources that could sustain its estimated population of 3. 2 million people. The question is how the available resources was being utilised and how did it contribute in fuelling the conflict. The availability of precious minerals and hard wood timber in Liberia contributed greatly in escalating and maintain the 14 years Liberian conflict. The age of the child soldier does not guarantee their immunity from being deployed the battlefield because while most are in their teens, some are as young as seven years old.Being so tender in age, they may start out as cooks, messengers, porters or guards, but often end up on the frontlines of combat. In Liberia, many boys some as young as nine or ten man checkpoints. The authority that goes with the responsibility gives them the free rein to harass, loot, terrorize and sometimes, kill civilians. Manning checkpoints gives a child power and influence, even if he is twelve years old. There have been instances where fifteen or twenty boys man a checkpoint and the commander is only ten years old.In long-drawn-out conflicts, children also become a valued resource. Children who have grown up surrounded by violence see this as a permanent way of life. Some having been orphaned, they are left on their own and are often frightened, bored and frustrated, leaving them with little options but to fight. When schools are closed and families fragmented, there are few influences that can compete with a warrior’s life. The human rights violations that occur when children are used in hostilities are not limited to child soldiers killing and being killed or injured.Girls also are used as soldiers, and fall victims of rape and other sexual abuse. The human rights impacts are terrible and far-reaching and have an impact not only on those children directly concerned but also on the families and communities, and continue long after the hostilities have ended . Besides being the continent that has the highest propensity for girls entering forces or groups via abduction or gang pressing, Africa is also the region with the highest number of children in armed opposition forces, numbering to approximately 120,000.In addition to being participant in combat, girl soldiers are often required to perform sexual services. In some cases, girls are in fact primarily recruited or abducted as ‘wives’ or ‘concubines', a common practice in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Among the common roles found in countries from every region of the world was the use of girl soldiers as porters, cooks or made to perform a variety of domestic labor, as well as spies and looters in villages taken over by armed forces or armed opposition groups. 5. 2Why children become child soldiersThe factors which give rise to the participation of children in conflict are complex. No single model can either explain all the factors, or outline a uniform procedure that will prevent child recruitment, and enable procedures for the demobilisation and social reintegration of children who have participated in conflict. Most child soldiers are from poor or disadvantaged sections of the society in conflict. Children, who live in the conflict zones by themselves are often recruited. Also, those children with disrupted families or no families at all are more likely to become child soldiers.In Liberia, child soldiers we of ten recruited from refugee camps in neighbouring countries like Guinea, Ivory coast and Sierra Leone while others were recruited from Internally Displaced Camps(IDP), within Liberia. In the months following UNMIL’s deployment on 1 October 2003, assessment missions carried out by UNMIL and humanitarian agencies, including into areas of the country until recently inaccessible, revealed large numbers of injured people, mostly children, which was consistent with the widespread use of child soldiers.The proliferation of small arms in West Africa contributed greatly not only to continuing conflict and repeated failure of successive peace agreements in the region, but has also encouraged and facilitated the recruitment and use of child soldiers, as well as other serious human rights abuses against the civilian population. The widespread availability of modern lightweight weapons enables even the youngest child soldier to use weapons efficiently.Technological development of arms toda y has produces arms weighing less than seven pounds and cost cheaply and yet so advance that even an illiterate child of ten could strip, reassemble, load and fire it. This mere knowledge however, did not make them skilled soldiers. On the contrary, they suffer much higher casualty rates than their adult counterparts, in part because of their lack of maturity and experience that leads them to take unnecessary risks. Their frail bodies are more susceptible to complications if injured, and they are more likely to fall ill in the rough conditions of military camps.Child soldiers are viewed as more expendable and therefore receive less training and must undertake the most dangerous tasks such as checking for mines or spying in enemy camps. Often children are recruited through abduction in massive sweeps of homes, schools, Refugee camp, Internally displaced camps and streets. In some situations, child survivors of village raids and massacres are forcibly inducted. Abduction is only the f irst step in a process that uses fear, brutality and psychological manipulation to achieve high levels of obedience in converting children into killers.In many conflicts, child recruits are subjected to beatings, humiliation and acts of sadism. During the escalation of the conflict, especially in Monrovia in June and July 2003, there was a marked increase in forcible recruitment of children by all sides. A frequently used tactic in indoctrinating children to violence is exposing them progressively to violence, thus numbing them so that they might someday commit acts of sadism on fellow humans. Child recruits in Liberia, were forced to cut the throats of domestic animals and drink its blood.Children are often terrorized into obedience, consistently made to fear for their lives and well-being. They quickly recognize that absolute obedience is the only means to ensure survival. Sometimes they are compelled to participate in the killing of other children or family members, because it is understood by these groups that there is â€Å"no way back home† for children after they have committed such crimes. Evidence indicates that the recruitment and use of children has become the means of choice of many armed groups for waging war.Certainly, not all inductions of children are forced. Those old enough to understand the underlying cause of the conflict want to join adults in a revered cause. Others participate to prove themselves and please adults while yet there may be victims or have family members who were victims, join to seek revenge. There are several cases in Liberia were children decided to join rebel groups to avenge the murder of their kin. Media images may also play a part. In Liberia, opposition forces could broadcast Rambo-style movies as part of its combat training.In such contexts, young boys learn machismo and come to associate military activity with respect and power-compelling attractions for children who otherwise feel powerless. DDRR The implem entation of the Liberian peace agreement and consolidation of peace, security and the rule of law were contingent on successful completion of the DDRR program. All other initiatives aimed at post-conflict reconstruction and restoration of basic human rights, including those of child soldier, are predicated on effective DDRR.The importance of completely disarming fighters and destroying weapons is very critical because the ex-combatants can use the weapons to harass civilians, loot properties or attack their opponents . Continued delays in disarmament and demobilization, and provision of the financial incentive to former combatants, can aggravate a precarious security situation. In March 2004 MODEL combatants in Tapeta, Nimba County, threatened harassment of international humanitarian agencies in the area in protest at the delays.Similarly, former government forces fired their weapons at night near Maimu internally displaced people's camp in Totota, Bong County, and threatened to loo t the camp if disarmament and demobilization were further postponed. In early April 2004 LURD combatants, also angered by the delay in disarmament and demobilization, were reported to have harassed civilians and stolen money and property at unofficial checkpoints on the road between Totota and Gbarnga.The previous disarmament and demobilization process which took place in Liberia in the late 1990s was seriously deficient in returning former child soldiers to their families and communities. While up to 20,000 child soldiers were estimated to be involved in the conflict which ended in 1997, little more than 4,000 were reported to have been fully disarmed, demobilized and reintegrated into their communities. As a result, with the resumption of hostilities, rapid re-mobilization of children was possible because many were to some degree still under the control of local commander.The Cape Town Principles, as observed by the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), define a child soldier as any person under 18 years who is part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force in any capacity, including but not limited to cooks, porters, messengers and anyone accompanying such groups, other than family members. The definition includes girls recruited for sexual purposes and for forced marriage. It does not, therefore, only refer to a child who is carrying or has carried arms .Application of this broad definition is important: possession of a weapon is not a prerequisite for a child soldier to benefit from the DDRR process. In Liberia, possession of a weapon or ammunition was the criteria for inclusion in the DDRR process. Since not all the child soldiers were armed or involved in the actual fighting, many former child soldiers were not involved in the DDRR process and thus did not benefit from the cash allowances paid to those with weapons to assist them reintegrate into their society.Those who were left out in the DDRR programme simply crossed over to the neighbouring, especially in Ivory coast , joined other rebel group and took up arms. The conflict in West Africa was a vicious circle which saw child soldiers moving from one rebel group to another, for them, it was their lifestyle. The net effect of this was that conflicts in this part of west Africa have continued shifting from one country to the other.Governments international organizations involved in the DDRR process should ensure speedy registration procedures at camps and settlements, as well as at demobilization centres. They should also prioritize the immediate psychological, social and physical rehabilitation of former child soldiers generally and to prevent re-recruitment. The involvement of children in conflict has a devastating effect on their physical and mental integrity. There are higher casualty rates among children because of their inexperience, fearlessness and lack of training.In addition to the inevitable risks of death or serious injury in combat, children suffer disproportionately fr om the general rigours of military life, especially in the bush, and are particularly vulnerable to disease and malnutrition. The full extent of the impact of the severe psychological consequences of active participation in hostilities, with children witnessing and at times also committing atrocities, may only become apparent over a long period. It takes a matter of moments to abduct and forcibly recruit children; it takes years, owever, for former child soldiers to be fully rehabilitated and reintegrated into their families and communities and able to resume their lives. Child soldiers in Liberia were cynically used as they were perceived as cheap and expendable, and easier to condition into fearless killing and unquestioning obedience. Those resisting refusing to comply with their commanders' orders risked being beaten or killed. Both the rebel groups and government forces abducted children, both girls and boys and some as young as seven years, and forced them to fight, carry ammu nition, prepare food or carry out other tasks.Girls were raped and forced to provide sexual services. While older girls were actively engaged in fighting, younger ones provided domestic services as cooks or cleaners or carried arms and ammunition. Many child soldiers were given drugs and alcohol to induce aggression and inhibit fear. With little or no military training, they were sent directly to the front line where many were killed or wounded. The conflict in Liberia lasted for 14 years due to availability of child soldiers and funds from the illicit trade of Gold and Diamonds run and sustain the conflict.The conflict in Liberia has forced vast numbers of civilians to flee their homes. During 2003 it was estimated that more than 500,000 were internally displaced and another 300,000 living as refugees in neighbouring countries. Child soldiers were recruited from neighbouring countries of Ivory coast, Guinea and Sierra Leone. LURD forces abducted and recruited children from internal ly displaced people's camps in Liberia, especially those in Montserrado County as they advanced towards Monrovia during 2003. They were also reported to have abducted children from refugee camps in Guinea.MODEL recruited children from refugee camps in Cote d'Ivoire and further swelled their ranks with children as they advanced towards Buchanan, Grand Bassa County, over which they took control on 26 July 2003. .Rape and other grave sexual violence against children. The rape and sexual violation of children and women is increasingly a characteristic of conflict. Such violence is often perpetrated against boys and girls in a rule of law vacuum that is a consequence of conflict and is exacerbated by the ensuing culture of impunity.In some instances sexual violence has been used as a premeditated tactic of war designed to humiliate or exterminate a population or to force displacement. Reports of high incidence rates of rape and sexual violence against children were received in Liberia. I n many cases, the data on incidents, magnitude and scope of sexual violence is unreliable or non-existent due to deep cultural taboos surrounding such crimes, fear of reprisal of victims and their families and a range of other factors.Precise information, critical for combating impunity and for programmatic response, is difficult to obtain or verify. Sexual violence appears to be especially prevalent in and around refugee camps and settlements for internally displaced populations. For children especially, the physical and mental consequences are devastating. Such violations may also take the form of sexual slavery, forced prostitution and marriage or sexual mutilation.The long-term health consequences for the victims include sexually transmitted infection such as HIV/AIDS, fistula, early pregnancy and debilitating psychological trauma. Although cases of sexual violence against boys are sometimes reported, insufficient attention is paid to this particular dimension, and such violatio ns remain largely undocumented. Some research indicates that boys are especially vulnerable to sexual violence during military operations in civilian areas or during military conscription or abduction into paramilitary forces.They are also especially vulnerable in refugee and internally displaced settings and in detention. Sexual violence in times of conflict, in particular against boys and girls, constitutes the breaking of deep social taboos in every culture and as such causes maximum devastation to the social fabric of communities. Therefore, the interventions required in the aftermath of widespread and systematic sexual violence necessitates more comprehensive approaches that begin with the victims but extend to the communities in which they must once again find their place and comfort.The stigmatization of victims of sexual violence, which often leads to their being ostracized or marginalized, requires comprehensive community-level interventions for affected girls and boys. Emp hasis must be placed on fighting impunity for rape and other sexual violence through rigorous and systematic investigation and prosecution of such crimes at the national level and an increased focus on this problem by international justice mechanisms. At the national level, comprehensive initiatives to address the issue of sexual violence are required, and national ownership of such programmes is critical.Donors, the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations should accord priority to providing technical and financial support to national authorities for the preparation and implementation of national strategies to address sexual violence. A regional approach to ending the use of child soldiers The conflict in Liberia was not simply an â€Å"internal† armed conflict; it had acquired a regional dimension involving, in particular, Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea and Sierra Leone. Arms and fighters crossed back and forth across the borders between the four countries.Peace in L iberia was and still is essential for maintaining peace in West Africa; conversely, any increase in hostilities across Liberia's borders could undermine efforts to maintain peace in Liberia. In order to restore peace and security to West Africa, there was to be a coordinated approach across the region, with harmonization of UN efforts, including those of UN peace-keeping operations: UNMIL, the UN Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) and the UN Mission in Cote d'Ivoire (MINUCI).Structured dialogue on cross boarder recruitment and use of children has already paved the way for dialogue on broader child protection issues and enabled child protection actors in the field to pursue other priorities such as provision of education and healthcare to ex-child soldiers. Convention on the Rights of the Child – fulfilling commitments Liberia ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1993. During the subsequent decade, however, Liberian children have been denied their most funda mental rights.On 17 May 2004 the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child begins its thirty-sixth session during which it will consider Liberia's initial report on the measures taken to implement its obligations under the Convention. The Committee's consideration of Liberia's report offers an important opportunity to highlight the plight of Liberia's children and to consider ways of strengthening implementation of the rights enshrined in the Convention.Review of the report will lead to the adoption of the Committee's concluding observations which usually identify positive aspects, factors impeding implementation, principal areas of concern and recommendations. The concluding observations provide an opportunity to urge the NTGL to undertake concrete measures to improve the situation of children in Liberia and, at the same time, to encourage the international community to support the NGTL's efforts to meet its commitments.The report of the UN Secretary-General on children and armed con flict of 10 November 2003 specifically recommends that the Committee use the occasion of country reports and reviews to promote monitoring and accountability. (18) The NTGL's responsibility to end the use of child soldiers Under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the National Transitional Government of Liberia (NTGL) was legally obliged not to recruit and use children under the age of 18 years as combatants.An important element of post-conflict reconstruction in Liberia was the formation of a new, professional, well-trained army. The peace agreement stated explicitly that all irregular forces would be disbanded and that the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) would be reformed with a new command structure. Assistance was requested from the international community, including the UN, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the International Contact Group on Liberia.It specifically requests the US to take a lead in restructuring the armed forces. A Military Advisory Commission was established in early 2004, with the new, restructured armed forces deployed by the end of December 2005. This offered an important opportunity for concrete measures by the NTGL to ensure that no child under the age of 18 was recruited by the armed forces. Liberia is a signatory to the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child but it is yet to ratify it.Liberia should ratify without delay the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict which raises the age for participation in hostilities to 18 years, and enact legislation making 18 years the minimum age for military recruitment. CONCLUSION As is known, basic survival needs take precedence over psychological during times of war but there is an increasing concern today that the experiences of war will have damaging effects on not only the psychological but also the social skills, attitudes towards the society th ey live in, their elationship with others as well as their perspective on life itself will be greatly impaired. It is sad that children have to watch their role models that include parents, teachers or elders, torture and kill each other while some trade their children for food and security. This act of breaching the expected moral standards of behaviour by authoritative figures are translated by children as betrayal, which in turn are manifested in themselves, as they grow up. These manifestations can take many forms.While studies have shown that school absenteeism and juvenile crimes or attitudes favoring gambling, pre-marital sex and smoking could indicate such altered moral learning in children, acts of physical aggression, imitation of military acts and unwillingness to co-operate with peers are also indicators of developmental damage. Even when the war is over, its effects on children linger on long after the stressful event. They may experience numbing of responsiveness to or reduced involvement with the external world.This may be indicated by a marked diminished interest in activities and surroundings, feelings of detachment or estrangement from others, loss of energy or withdrawal. Such negative developments in the child would influence the child’s occupational choice and his relationship with others later in life. 38 Poverty appears to be the motivating factor in most of the countries where child soldiers prevail. It is therefore important for relevant sections of the international community to also look at the flaws in the international economy.The economy disparity between the developed and the developing world must be addressed because it is under these dire economic conditions in the developing world that innocent children are recruited as soldiers. Improvement of standards of living is vital to overcome the menace of recruiting children as combatants Maybe there is still hope for those unfortunate children who are victims of adultsâ€℠¢ irresponsibility. A mechanism for international accountability was drafted on 17 July 1998 and open for signatures a year later. However, as in other treaties of the United Nations, it can only come Child Soldiers critical Analysis of the use of Child Soldiers in Liberia 5. 1 Introduction Generally stated ,this paper seeks to establish the role of child soldiers in the escalation of armed conflict in Africa. The previous chapters have discussed the regional armed conflicts where child soldiers were used or are being used like the case of DRC Congo. This chapter will critically analyse the use of child soldiers in Liberia. There were approximately 120,000 child soldiers who were participating in armed conflicts in Africa. Out of these, approximately 24,000 were in the Liberian conflict.Liberia is not a poor country. It has natural resources that could sustain its estimated population of 3. 2 million people. The question is how the available resources was being utilised and how did it contribute in fuelling the conflict. The availability of precious minerals and hard wood timber in Liberia contributed greatly in escalating and maintain the 14 years Liberian conflict. The age of the child soldier does not guarantee their immunity from being deployed the battlefield because while most are in their teens, some are as young as seven years old.Being so tender in age, they may start out as cooks, messengers, porters or guards, but often end up on the frontlines of combat. In Liberia, many boys some as young as nine or ten man checkpoints. The authority that goes with the responsibility gives them the free rein to harass, loot, terrorize and sometimes, kill civilians. Manning checkpoints gives a child power and influence, even if he is twelve years old. There have been instances where fifteen or twenty boys man a checkpoint and the commander is only ten years old.In long-drawn-out conflicts, children also become a valued resource. Children who have grown up surrounded by violence see this as a permanent way of life. Some having been orphaned, they are left on their own and are often frightened, bored and frustrated, leaving them with little options but to fight. When schools are closed and families fragmented, there are few influences that can compete with a warrior’s life. The human rights violations that occur when children are used in hostilities are not limited to child soldiers killing and being killed or injured.Girls also are used as soldiers, and fall victims of rape and other sexual abuse. The human rights impacts are terrible and far-reaching and have an impact not only on those children directly concerned but also on the families and communities, and continue long after the hostilities have ended . Besides being the continent that has the highest propensity for girls entering forces or groups via abduction or gang pressing, Africa is also the region with the highest number of children in armed opposition forces, numbering to approximately 120,000.In addition to being participant in combat, girl soldiers are often required to perform sexual services. In some cases, girls are in fact primarily recruited or abducted as ‘wives’ or ‘concubines', a common practice in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Among the common roles found in countries from every region of the world was the use of girl soldiers as porters, cooks or made to perform a variety of domestic labor, as well as spies and looters in villages taken over by armed forces or armed opposition groups. 5. 2Why children become child soldiersThe factors which give rise to the participation of children in conflict are complex. No single model can either explain all the factors, or outline a uniform procedure that will prevent child recruitment, and enable procedures for the demobilisation and social reintegration of children who have participated in conflict. Most child soldiers are from poor or disadvantaged sections of the society in conflict. Children, who live in the conflict zones by themselves are often recruited. Also, those children with disrupted families or no families at all are more likely to become child soldiers.In Liberia, child soldiers we of ten recruited from refugee camps in neighbouring countries like Guinea, Ivory coast and Sierra Leone while others were recruited from Internally Displaced Camps(IDP), within Liberia. In the months following UNMIL’s deployment on 1 October 2003, assessment missions carried out by UNMIL and humanitarian agencies, including into areas of the country until recently inaccessible, revealed large numbers of injured people, mostly children, which was consistent with the widespread use of child soldiers.The proliferation of small arms in West Africa contributed greatly not only to continuing conflict and repeated failure of successive peace agreements in the region, but has also encouraged and facilitated the recruitment and use of child soldiers, as well as other serious human rights abuses against the civilian population. The widespread availability of modern lightweight weapons enables even the youngest child soldier to use weapons efficiently.Technological development of arms toda y has produces arms weighing less than seven pounds and cost cheaply and yet so advance that even an illiterate child of ten could strip, reassemble, load and fire it. This mere knowledge however, did not make them skilled soldiers. On the contrary, they suffer much higher casualty rates than their adult counterparts, in part because of their lack of maturity and experience that leads them to take unnecessary risks. Their frail bodies are more susceptible to complications if injured, and they are more likely to fall ill in the rough conditions of military camps.Child soldiers are viewed as more expendable and therefore receive less training and must undertake the most dangerous tasks such as checking for mines or spying in enemy camps. Often children are recruited through abduction in massive sweeps of homes, schools, Refugee camp, Internally displaced camps and streets. In some situations, child survivors of village raids and massacres are forcibly inducted. Abduction is only the f irst step in a process that uses fear, brutality and psychological manipulation to achieve high levels of obedience in converting children into killers.In many conflicts, child recruits are subjected to beatings, humiliation and acts of sadism. During the escalation of the conflict, especially in Monrovia in June and July 2003, there was a marked increase in forcible recruitment of children by all sides. A frequently used tactic in indoctrinating children to violence is exposing them progressively to violence, thus numbing them so that they might someday commit acts of sadism on fellow humans. Child recruits in Liberia, were forced to cut the throats of domestic animals and drink its blood.Children are often terrorized into obedience, consistently made to fear for their lives and well-being. They quickly recognize that absolute obedience is the only means to ensure survival. Sometimes they are compelled to participate in the killing of other children or family members, because it is understood by these groups that there is â€Å"no way back home† for children after they have committed such crimes. Evidence indicates that the recruitment and use of children has become the means of choice of many armed groups for waging war.Certainly, not all inductions of children are forced. Those old enough to understand the underlying cause of the conflict want to join adults in a revered cause. Others participate to prove themselves and please adults while yet there may be victims or have family members who were victims, join to seek revenge. There are several cases in Liberia were children decided to join rebel groups to avenge the murder of their kin. Media images may also play a part. In Liberia, opposition forces could broadcast Rambo-style movies as part of its combat training.In such contexts, young boys learn machismo and come to associate military activity with respect and power-compelling attractions for children who otherwise feel powerless. DDRR The implem entation of the Liberian peace agreement and consolidation of peace, security and the rule of law were contingent on successful completion of the DDRR program. All other initiatives aimed at post-conflict reconstruction and restoration of basic human rights, including those of child soldier, are predicated on effective DDRR.The importance of completely disarming fighters and destroying weapons is very critical because the ex-combatants can use the weapons to harass civilians, loot properties or attack their opponents . Continued delays in disarmament and demobilization, and provision of the financial incentive to former combatants, can aggravate a precarious security situation. In March 2004 MODEL combatants in Tapeta, Nimba County, threatened harassment of international humanitarian agencies in the area in protest at the delays.Similarly, former government forces fired their weapons at night near Maimu internally displaced people's camp in Totota, Bong County, and threatened to loo t the camp if disarmament and demobilization were further postponed. In early April 2004 LURD combatants, also angered by the delay in disarmament and demobilization, were reported to have harassed civilians and stolen money and property at unofficial checkpoints on the road between Totota and Gbarnga.The previous disarmament and demobilization process which took place in Liberia in the late 1990s was seriously deficient in returning former child soldiers to their families and communities. While up to 20,000 child soldiers were estimated to be involved in the conflict which ended in 1997, little more than 4,000 were reported to have been fully disarmed, demobilized and reintegrated into their communities. As a result, with the resumption of hostilities, rapid re-mobilization of children was possible because many were to some degree still under the control of local commander.The Cape Town Principles, as observed by the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), define a child soldier as any person under 18 years who is part of any kind of regular or irregular armed force in any capacity, including but not limited to cooks, porters, messengers and anyone accompanying such groups, other than family members. The definition includes girls recruited for sexual purposes and for forced marriage. It does not, therefore, only refer to a child who is carrying or has carried arms .Application of this broad definition is important: possession of a weapon is not a prerequisite for a child soldier to benefit from the DDRR process. In Liberia, possession of a weapon or ammunition was the criteria for inclusion in the DDRR process. Since not all the child soldiers were armed or involved in the actual fighting, many former child soldiers were not involved in the DDRR process and thus did not benefit from the cash allowances paid to those with weapons to assist them reintegrate into their society.Those who were left out in the DDRR programme simply crossed over to the neighbouring, especially in Ivory coast , joined other rebel group and took up arms. The conflict in West Africa was a vicious circle which saw child soldiers moving from one rebel group to another, for them, it was their lifestyle. The net effect of this was that conflicts in this part of west Africa have continued shifting from one country to the other.Governments international organizations involved in the DDRR process should ensure speedy registration procedures at camps and settlements, as well as at demobilization centres. They should also prioritize the immediate psychological, social and physical rehabilitation of former child soldiers generally and to prevent re-recruitment. The involvement of children in conflict has a devastating effect on their physical and mental integrity. There are higher casualty rates among children because of their inexperience, fearlessness and lack of training.In addition to the inevitable risks of death or serious injury in combat, children suffer disproportionately fr om the general rigours of military life, especially in the bush, and are particularly vulnerable to disease and malnutrition. The full extent of the impact of the severe psychological consequences of active participation in hostilities, with children witnessing and at times also committing atrocities, may only become apparent over a long period. It takes a matter of moments to abduct and forcibly recruit children; it takes years, owever, for former child soldiers to be fully rehabilitated and reintegrated into their families and communities and able to resume their lives. Child soldiers in Liberia were cynically used as they were perceived as cheap and expendable, and easier to condition into fearless killing and unquestioning obedience. Those resisting refusing to comply with their commanders' orders risked being beaten or killed. Both the rebel groups and government forces abducted children, both girls and boys and some as young as seven years, and forced them to fight, carry ammu nition, prepare food or carry out other tasks.Girls were raped and forced to provide sexual services. While older girls were actively engaged in fighting, younger ones provided domestic services as cooks or cleaners or carried arms and ammunition. Many child soldiers were given drugs and alcohol to induce aggression and inhibit fear. With little or no military training, they were sent directly to the front line where many were killed or wounded. The conflict in Liberia lasted for 14 years due to availability of child soldiers and funds from the illicit trade of Gold and Diamonds run and sustain the conflict.The conflict in Liberia has forced vast numbers of civilians to flee their homes. During 2003 it was estimated that more than 500,000 were internally displaced and another 300,000 living as refugees in neighbouring countries. Child soldiers were recruited from neighbouring countries of Ivory coast, Guinea and Sierra Leone. LURD forces abducted and recruited children from internal ly displaced people's camps in Liberia, especially those in Montserrado County as they advanced towards Monrovia during 2003. They were also reported to have abducted children from refugee camps in Guinea.MODEL recruited children from refugee camps in Cote d'Ivoire and further swelled their ranks with children as they advanced towards Buchanan, Grand Bassa County, over which they took control on 26 July 2003. .Rape and other grave sexual violence against children. The rape and sexual violation of children and women is increasingly a characteristic of conflict. Such violence is often perpetrated against boys and girls in a rule of law vacuum that is a consequence of conflict and is exacerbated by the ensuing culture of impunity.In some instances sexual violence has been used as a premeditated tactic of war designed to humiliate or exterminate a population or to force displacement. Reports of high incidence rates of rape and sexual violence against children were received in Liberia. I n many cases, the data on incidents, magnitude and scope of sexual violence is unreliable or non-existent due to deep cultural taboos surrounding such crimes, fear of reprisal of victims and their families and a range of other factors.Precise information, critical for combating impunity and for programmatic response, is difficult to obtain or verify. Sexual violence appears to be especially prevalent in and around refugee camps and settlements for internally displaced populations. For children especially, the physical and mental consequences are devastating. Such violations may also take the form of sexual slavery, forced prostitution and marriage or sexual mutilation.The long-term health consequences for the victims include sexually transmitted infection such as HIV/AIDS, fistula, early pregnancy and debilitating psychological trauma. Although cases of sexual violence against boys are sometimes reported, insufficient attention is paid to this particular dimension, and such violatio ns remain largely undocumented. Some research indicates that boys are especially vulnerable to sexual violence during military operations in civilian areas or during military conscription or abduction into paramilitary forces.They are also especially vulnerable in refugee and internally displaced settings and in detention. Sexual violence in times of conflict, in particular against boys and girls, constitutes the breaking of deep social taboos in every culture and as such causes maximum devastation to the social fabric of communities. Therefore, the interventions required in the aftermath of widespread and systematic sexual violence necessitates more comprehensive approaches that begin with the victims but extend to the communities in which they must once again find their place and comfort.The stigmatization of victims of sexual violence, which often leads to their being ostracized or marginalized, requires comprehensive community-level interventions for affected girls and boys. Emp hasis must be placed on fighting impunity for rape and other sexual violence through rigorous and systematic investigation and prosecution of such crimes at the national level and an increased focus on this problem by international justice mechanisms. At the national level, comprehensive initiatives to address the issue of sexual violence are required, and national ownership of such programmes is critical.Donors, the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations should accord priority to providing technical and financial support to national authorities for the preparation and implementation of national strategies to address sexual violence. A regional approach to ending the use of child soldiers The conflict in Liberia was not simply an â€Å"internal† armed conflict; it had acquired a regional dimension involving, in particular, Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea and Sierra Leone. Arms and fighters crossed back and forth across the borders between the four countries.Peace in L iberia was and still is essential for maintaining peace in West Africa; conversely, any increase in hostilities across Liberia's borders could undermine efforts to maintain peace in Liberia. In order to restore peace and security to West Africa, there was to be a coordinated approach across the region, with harmonization of UN efforts, including those of UN peace-keeping operations: UNMIL, the UN Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) and the UN Mission in Cote d'Ivoire (MINUCI).Structured dialogue on cross boarder recruitment and use of children has already paved the way for dialogue on broader child protection issues and enabled child protection actors in the field to pursue other priorities such as provision of education and healthcare to ex-child soldiers. Convention on the Rights of the Child – fulfilling commitments Liberia ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1993. During the subsequent decade, however, Liberian children have been denied their most funda mental rights.On 17 May 2004 the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child begins its thirty-sixth session during which it will consider Liberia's initial report on the measures taken to implement its obligations under the Convention. The Committee's consideration of Liberia's report offers an important opportunity to highlight the plight of Liberia's children and to consider ways of strengthening implementation of the rights enshrined in the Convention.Review of the report will lead to the adoption of the Committee's concluding observations which usually identify positive aspects, factors impeding implementation, principal areas of concern and recommendations. The concluding observations provide an opportunity to urge the NTGL to undertake concrete measures to improve the situation of children in Liberia and, at the same time, to encourage the international community to support the NGTL's efforts to meet its commitments.The report of the UN Secretary-General on children and armed con flict of 10 November 2003 specifically recommends that the Committee use the occasion of country reports and reviews to promote monitoring and accountability. (18) The NTGL's responsibility to end the use of child soldiers Under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the National Transitional Government of Liberia (NTGL) was legally obliged not to recruit and use children under the age of 18 years as combatants.An important element of post-conflict reconstruction in Liberia was the formation of a new, professional, well-trained army. The peace agreement stated explicitly that all irregular forces would be disbanded and that the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) would be reformed with a new command structure. Assistance was requested from the international community, including the UN, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the International Contact Group on Liberia.It specifically requests the US to take a lead in restructuring the armed forces. A Military Advisory Commission was established in early 2004, with the new, restructured armed forces deployed by the end of December 2005. This offered an important opportunity for concrete measures by the NTGL to ensure that no child under the age of 18 was recruited by the armed forces. Liberia is a signatory to the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child but it is yet to ratify it.Liberia should ratify without delay the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict which raises the age for participation in hostilities to 18 years, and enact legislation making 18 years the minimum age for military recruitment. CONCLUSION As is known, basic survival needs take precedence over psychological during times of war but there is an increasing concern today that the experiences of war will have damaging effects on not only the psychological but also the social skills, attitudes towards the society th ey live in, their elationship with others as well as their perspective on life itself will be greatly impaired. It is sad that children have to watch their role models that include parents, teachers or elders, torture and kill each other while some trade their children for food and security. This act of breaching the expected moral standards of behaviour by authoritative figures are translated by children as betrayal, which in turn are manifested in themselves, as they grow up. These manifestations can take many forms.While studies have shown that school absenteeism and juvenile crimes or attitudes favoring gambling, pre-marital sex and smoking could indicate such altered moral learning in children, acts of physical aggression, imitation of military acts and unwillingness to co-operate with peers are also indicators of developmental damage. Even when the war is over, its effects on children linger on long after the stressful event. They may experience numbing of responsiveness to or reduced involvement with the external world.This may be indicated by a marked diminished interest in activities and surroundings, feelings of detachment or estrangement from others, loss of energy or withdrawal. Such negative developments in the child would influence the child’s occupational choice and his relationship with others later in life. 38 Poverty appears to be the motivating factor in most of the countries where child soldiers prevail. It is therefore important for relevant sections of the international community to also look at the flaws in the international economy.The economy disparity between the developed and the developing world must be addressed because it is under these dire economic conditions in the developing world that innocent children are recruited as soldiers. Improvement of standards of living is vital to overcome the menace of recruiting children as combatants Maybe there is still hope for those unfortunate children who are victims of adultsâ€℠¢ irresponsibility. A mechanism for international accountability was drafted on 17 July 1998 and open for signatures a year later. However, as in other treaties of the United Nations, it can only come

Alex Rider: Stormbreaker

Alex Rider: Stormbreaker 1)I liked this book. It was filled with action and suspense. But I didn’t like how it was far-fetched. A 14 year old that knew all different types of karate, languages, moves, and almost taught like a spy from birth. But other than that, I really liked the book. I like how everything was detailed. 2)A. The main characters are Alex Rider, Ian Rider (dead, but an important name), Yassen Gregorovich, and Herold Sayle. B. The setting of this book is Present day in London. C. The Central Plot is that the Stormbreaker Computers have a Vial of smallpox gas. It comes out of the computers when the computer is turned on. 3) Plot Pyramid ?Ian Rider Dies ?Alex meets men from the bank ?Ian’s office is raided ?Alex see’s the car that Ian was driving when he died. ?He finds out that the bank is really the â€Å"M16† ?Alex becomes a spy ?He goes through intense training for mission ?Goes to Stormbreaker headquarters ?Uses computer and snoops around the plant ?Found and escorted back into his personal room, where Ian Rider slept ? Found a piece of paper with a drawing( will come in handy later) ? Alex hides in vans that go to pick up something at docks. Found out that Yassen is working with Sayle ? Man dies for dropping a steel box ?Goes back to House ?Alex almost gets killed by Yassen and Herold’s men ?Goes to library and gets book ?Finds out what the picture really meant ?Goes into a mine shaft ?Stayed in water for 2 minutes to get to the other side ?Found the lab where the vials were being put into the computer ? Gets aught and tied up ?Escapes and goes to where the ceremony is ?Reaches Science Museum ?Prime Minister shot ?Sayle shot and disappeared ?Alex stays in school and Jack is allowed to stay in London ? Sayle finds Alex and brings him to a top of a building ?Helicopter flies away without Alex ?Story Ends 4)My favorite character in this book is Alex Rider. He is strong, agile, smart, and speaks like he is older. He climbs out a window for his own curiosity. He saved Millions of people. Alex als o very sneaky. He went around the plant and not being detected for a while. That’s why Alex Rider is my favorite character in the book. 5)The theme that I thought was in this book was that â€Å"An ordinary person could save lives. † I say that because Alex saved millions of people and he was a regular person. Or at least until his uncle died. He was a regular guy when he went out for training to save the school kids. 6)This story is told in 3rd person. Two page examples are pages 1 and 56. Both of the pages say names and not â€Å"I†, it’s all proper names.

Behavioral Theories Of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

From a cognitive approach, obsessive-compulsive disorder is the result of people blaming their obsessions and compulsions on themselves and therefore having non-rational thoughts of bad things occurring if there compulsions are not acted upon. People with this disorder will attempt to neutralize their thoughts by the compulsions which is usually unsuccessful. In turn, the individual will only feel ease from the negative thoughts temporarily. Treatment from a cognitive approach focuses on giving the patient an understanding of the cognitive process involved in their disorder (Comer 167). Cognitive therapists will help the patient understand why they are feeling the way they are, then they begin to direct their thinking patterns in a more†¦show more content†¦Studies have found that drugs such as clomipramine, fluoxetine, and fluvoxamine help between 50 and 80% of patients. The downfall to this type of treatment is that once the patient comes off of the medication the obsessio ns and compulsions return. This treatment only covers the symptoms of this disorder. Since there are downfalls to each treatment, cognitive, behavioral, and biological therapies are often used in combination. Obsessive-compulsive disorder can last for years or even be life long depending on how successful the treatment is. I chose to write a research paper on OCD because it is a disorder I am very interested in. I think this disorder can have a huge impact on people’s functioning. I could relate to the research I found on this topic, because I experience similar obsessions and compulsions. Although, I have never been diagnosed with this disorder. Sometimes it is difficult to determine whether or not the symptoms are affect daily functioning, because in some ways it does and in some it does not. For example, when I use the stove in the morning I will worry about turing it off. I do not have compulsions like explained in the research. I will only have obsessive thought about th e outcomes if it was left on all day. In this case, there is only obsessive thoughts, but I think this might be related to the disorder. Even though I know I turned the stove off, this causes anxiety for me which could be considered to impact myShow MoreRelatedCognitive Behavioral Theory Of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder1678 Words   |  7 Pagescognitive behavioral theory that are based on the belief that learning, cognitions, and perceptions play a significant role in the development and maintenance of emotional and behavioral problems. Various CBT models are applied to the diagnostic determinants of Francis’ dysfunctional behavior and the empirically supported methods of cognitive behavioral treatment of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder are used to build a treatment plan to aid in Francis’ recovery. Cognitive Behavioral Case ConceptualizationRead MoreEssay about Anxiety Disorder1441 Words   |  6 Pagespsychological disorders, anxiety disorders are the most predominant in the United States. According to Antony (2011), anxiety disorders affect nearly 28.8 percent of the population. An extreme and unrealistic anxiety is the most common symptom that characterizes all the psychological conditions within the category of anxiety disorders. The category includes specific phobia, agoraphobia, social phobia, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorderRead MoreAnalysis Of The One That Caught My Attention And Interest1589 Words   |  7 Pagesdevelop meaningful relationships. He’s experiencing feelings of self-doubt, low self-esteem, low self-confidence, depression, anxiety, and sleep deprivation. John is showing signs that he may be suffering from Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). 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Obsessions are repeated thoughts, urges, or mental images that cause anxiety. (â€Å"Obsessive-compulsive disorder,† 2013) Compulsions are irresistible urges to behave in a certain way, especially against one s conscious wishes to combat the obsessions. Common obsessions are contamination, losing control, harm, and perfectionismRead MoreObsessive Compulsive Disorder ( Ocd ) Essay1501 Words   |  7 Pages Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Who It Affects, Why It Affects Them, and What They Can Do to Be Cured Cheyenne Poynter Pensacola State College Abstract This paper explores Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) in depth. OCD will be defined extensively as well as how it begins, who it affects, the studies being done for it, and current cures for the unfortunate mental disorder. Biological, psychological, and environmental factors as well as genetic influences play a relatively large roleRead MoreThe Psychology Of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Essay1146 Words   |  5 PagesThe Psychology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, also known as OCD, is a disorder that affects about two to three percent of the population (UOCD). Knowing what OCD is and who it affects is just step one in understanding the psychology of this disorder. The psychological symptoms of OCD can be quite varied which can make it difficult to diagnose. Understanding the therapy techniques and how people with OCD live their daily lives is one of the most vital part in theRead MoreObsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Ocd) Is Known As The Incessant1048 Words   |  5 PagesObsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is known as the incessant of distressing thoughts or images which is known to be the (obsessions) or overt or convert the behaviors (or the mental rituals) that are aimed to help reduce anxiety (compulsions). This disorder has an effect on 1-2% of children and adults, that ranges up to 80% for adults that report of having symptoms onset prior to the young age of 18 years. It’s is known that without the appropriate type of intervention, the symptoms of OCD have

Stress Related Sports Injuries - 1803 Words

Physical factors are one the primary cause of injuries in sports and exercise for instance, a poor tackle in football, an awkward landing in gymnastics or poor warm-ups in sprinting. However, psychological researchers are continuing to show that thoughts, perceptions and aspects of personality may be linked to the incidence of injury. Stress and athletic injury Past research has seen the relationship between athletic injuries and psychological factors as essentially stress-related (1). In this sense, stress is predicted to produce increased state anxiety and consequently alterations in attentional focus and muscular tension. It is important to note that stress does not exist outside the individual â€Å" not all people respond negatively to†¦show more content†¦Despite this, the research findings to date are difficult to interpret due to inconsistencies, with the relationship between personality and injury remaining unclear. It would seem unlikely that a personality profile that characterizes injury-prone athletes actually exists (4), although some studies have identified patterns/trends that appear to warrant further investigation. One recent study identified injured college gymnasts as possessing emotional instability, emotional disturbance, stress proneness and lack of self-control (5). This finding appears to support the stress-injury model previously discussed. Other research has shown a readiness to take risks (lack of caution, spirit of adventure) as characteristic of injured athletes, although this is not sufficient to establish a causal relationship between such traits and injury. The relationship between personality and injury should be viewed with caution. Some recent reviewers (6) emphasizes that personality characteristics appear to either buffer or exacerbate the stress response â€Å" which is proposed to be the mechanism linked to injury. If personality is linked to injury (which is at present unclear) it is likely through indirect means. Attitudes and injury: In work with injured athletes, some sport and exercise psychologists have proposed that certain attitudes might predispose athletes to injury (7). According to thisShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Youth Sports On Children1249 Words   |  5 PagesYouth sports in America has become a trend that has touched every household. Sports has become so ingrained in American culture, that toddlers have even begun to experience it. Almost all children from the ages of six to ten have kicked a soccer ball or hit a ball with a bat. While studies have shown that youth team sports have a tremendous positive impact on a child’s social development, many children have run into serious injuries. 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